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Research by Region
Tibet
A brief history of Tibetan Medicine
Greek, Chinese and Indian influences on the development of Sorig in Tibet
One of the most interesting but also difficult aspects of analysing Tibetan medical texts lies in the multicultural origins of this body of literature. The Tibetan empire in Central Asia at various times included the regions of Khotan, the Tarim basin, Lop Nor, and other places with Iranian and Turkic populations (Kapstein 2000: 59). Thus, multiple influences reached Tibet over lengthy periods. Medical knowledge mainly from Greece, Persia, China and India, was incorporated into indigenous knowledge of healing over many centuries. In addition, Tibet itself had its indigenous medical knowledge, which encompassed animistic and shamanic elements.
Beckwith (1979), Stein (1972) and Yontan (1989) have so far presented an analysis of the introduction of Greek medicine into Tibet, of which the first is the most detailed. Beckwith stated that the court physicians of earlier Tibetan emperors came from Khrom (i.e. Eastern Roman or Greek Byzantine Empire) or Tazig (i.e. the Arab Persian Caliphate) (Beckwith 1979: 297). Scholars have speculated that the region of Khrom may have been Byzantine (Taube 1981: 10), Khrom near Persia (Jäger 1999: 19), 'bru zha in North West Tibet or even the name of one of the six original tribes of Tibet (Tsering 1980). It is nevertheless certain that the Greek humoural system had an influence on the development of the three humours (in Tibetan known as rLung, mKhris pa, and Bad kan) and their fundamental status in the understanding of illness and disease.
Tibetan historical sources that deal with early 7th-8th centuries influences, and which are often quoted in works on Tibetan medicine, date mostly to much later centuries, and one must critically investigate whether such late historians can be considered reliable sources to understand these early periods. Beckwith analysed four Tibetan historical texts with regard to the Chinese, Indian and Greek physicians who visited the royal court of the famous Tibetan King Songtsen Gampo (Srong btsan sgam po, 617-649/650 AD). It is said that only the Greek practitioner stayed on as Court physician (Beckwith 1979: 301). Beckwith is cautious to interpret the sources as indicating simply that the works of these writers or of their schools were introduced into Tibet at the time of Songtsen Gampo (Beckwith 1979: 300). Meyer maintains that these physicians represent "archetypes" of the various medical traditions rather than being historical personalities (Meyer in Alphen and Aris 1995: 110). The Tibetan King Trisong Deutsen (Khri sron dle'u btsan, 742-c.797AD) was also described as having nine court physicians, who came from India, Kashmir, China, Iran, East Turkestan (Gru gu), Dolpo and Nepal. For the same reasons, however, the historicity of these figures is not certain, but the famous physician Yuthog Yontan Gonpo the Elder is said to have headed this "New Medical School" as one of the nine private court physicians (Thinle 1991: 34). Tibetan historians mention two physicians with the name Yuthog Yontan Gonpo (gYu thog yon tan mgon po), the earlier of the 8th century is called "the Elder" the latter, who appeared in the 12th century, "the Younger". The two are particularly linked with the transmission of the Gyushi (Meyer 1992: 3).
Chinese influences on Tibetan medicine took place within broader cultural exchanges linked to the politically motivated marriages of Tibetan kings with Chinese princesses. Medical books were brought from China into Tibet by the T'ang princess Wencheng Kung Chu in 641AD, the main text being the sMan dpyad chen mo. This title is reminiscent of the Chinese term ta yao ("great medicine") used for the alchemist's drug of immortality (Beckwith 1979: 310). Princess Wencheng married King Songtsen Gampo, who is said to have had a Tibetan and a Nepalese wife as well. Songsten Gampo was known for his military activities in the expansion of the Tibetan Empire. His interest in medicine and Buddhism were probably secondary, if at all present. He was retrospectively, during the 14th century, envisaged as "King of the Dharma" - Dharmarajah, as part of the promotion of the cult of Avalokitesvara (Kapstein 2001), and his reign is generally marked as the first period of translation of Buddhist texts into Tibetan. In 712 AD, the Chinese Princess Kim Ch'eng Kung Chu is said to have brought mathematical and medical texts into Tibet, which were translated into Tibetan.
In India, while Northern Buddhist culture largely perished during the Islamic conquest (11-12th century), many aspects of the tradition, including medical ideas, were transmitted to Tibet, where the ruling élites seem to have encouraged Buddhism as a means to unify their domains. This second period of intense translation activity established strong monastic centres of Buddhist learning in Tibet, some of which had attached medical schools.
Text supplied by Barbara Gerke
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